A Treatise on Calico Printing, Of Colour-Makings

A Treatise on Calico Printing, VOL. I-II
Printed for C. O'Brien, Bookseller, Islington, and fold by Bew, Paternoster-row: Richardson, Royal Exchange: Murray, Fleet-Street: And the Booksellers of Manchester, Glasgow, Dublin, &c.
1792

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(1) There is no avoiding thus mis-naming this operation, custom has so established it, for (as observed before) what is called colour-making is but preparing the means to procure the colour from the colouring materials (in dyeing it is really and properly called the preparation) and even in chemick colour-making, where there is not the process of boilings it is not always just; for even in that case the substance imparted to the cloth is not exactly what it will be in respect to colour when rinsed, or otherwise brought up; indeed some of those cases seems an invertion of the process, being, as in the instance of liming, brought up or struck by a non colouring article. — See note 1, to Copper-work.

It is agreed that the art or mystery of colouring various articles was in use among the ancients, and in some instances they excelled us, at least it seems our mode of operation is but little different both in respect to preparation and finishing, though some parts of their knowledge is certainly lost to us; it is however certain, that they used other substances to that arr in present use; the presumption, of this being the case, is taken from the writings of very ancient authors, particularly the Greeks, and from some who have written expressly on the subject.

The Greeks, it is certain, distinguished the operations of preparation and colouring, by terms exactly to the same import as with us, as relative to opening the cores of the of to be coloured, the consider ration of the colour, and then the fixing of it; and that in the practice astringents were used as amongst us. from them it is probable it passed to the Romans, and their colour-makers or dyers (for here the terms are to the same meaning) made use of a species of fucus, which fixed the colours as firmly as is done by any modern proces; this plant is to be found in this island, it is, however, not deemed proper for whitening of linen.

The use of allum, tartar, lime, and other astringents were known to the ancients, though perhaps not exactly for the purpose we use them; what is said of them could be introduced here at length, but for reasons, several times given, it is deemed superfluous.

(2) It is not here meant that printers are to be restrained in this respect; they undoubtedly wish for as many colours as they can procure; but the difference alluded to is, as ebserved a little before in a note, that the mere producing of colours, as with dyers, is not their only object, Calico Printers having to exhibit a certain design, consisting of flowers, figures, &c. on the cloth, therefore, unless the writer is very mistaken, here is certainly a difference.

(3)See further on, where some hints are addressed immediately to the colour maker.

(4) Here the writer, in his usual unreserved manner, intimates the entertainment he has received when he has heard some Colour-makers in discourse; what was generally advanced being mere boasts of what each other knew beyond the rest, without touching on the principles of colour-making, for almost every master printer and every colourmaker will say, and probably believes, he is possessed of some advantage in this case, over every other; by which, to consider it in a general manner, that is, in every one possessing something extraordinary; it would seem as if on the whole nothing was wanting on this side perfection, but that is well known not to be the case; and it often happens, and every master Printer is appealed to for its truth, that when recipes have been purchased, it is rarely till after many experiments they derive advantage from them, and very often nothing can be made of them at any rate.

5) This phrase is in every chemical printers mouth, and some deem it so, and perhaps in some cases it is so, if it will endure two or three walhings.

(6) See at the close of this section a few thoughts on the probable effects of an univerfally adapted chemical mode of printing, if it could be attained.

(7) This brings to the writer's recollection his having read abook, he thinks called Marshall's Minutes of Agriculture; which in point of utility to the farmer, is a thousand times beyond a dry scientifical disquisition of the subject; as it contains a great number of observations apparently transmitted to paper as they occur, some of importance, and some but trivial, (or at least as might appear so to many) but these practical observations, as such, must be evidently of use, and the more so, as they are adapted to the capacities of those for whom they were intended to be useful.As observed in the introduction to copper-work, so here it is said of this sub ject, that the chief intention in treating of it, consists more in an attempt to enforce the consideration of its principles, than in: a wish to exhibit a number of recipe's or other similar deceptive and inefficacious modes of filling up this publication: It is however begged to be noted, that though in, this light the is affected to be treated, it is not to be understood as addressed to the scientific reader only, for that would be equally useless, in respect to those to whom it is particularly directed; as Callico-printers and those employed by them, have other considerations in plenty to attend, though people in general, and some theorists in Chemistry, think the whole business, or at least the consideration of it, is comprized in producing colours; hut at present, most printers are contented with the mode as adopted in common, or else reconcile them selves to it from not having either ability, opportunity, or inclination, to pursue it further; their view being to gain something by what is known and attainable, rather than to devote much time to the uncertain effects of speculation. Of Dyeing, it may perhaps be said, the chief matter to study and practise is this article of procuring and conveying colours; but before colour is conveyed to the cloth in printing, there ire processes to be observed and to acquire a proper knowledge of, more difficult to attain than the mere art of colour-making, according to the present accepted practice of it; and in truth, to speak from a certainty, the imperfections of printing, and even the miscarriages of printers, originate as much, or more, from their inattention to other circumstances or departments, or their ignorance of them, than merely that of colourmaking. See the observations on putting on, and at the end of the first volume.

It is however certain, notwithstanding, that from the great number who practise it, and. with some reputation, who have very little acquaintance with chemistry, there seems perhaps no necessity for it; yet in order to attain a proper knowledge of the, principles of this departments it is indispensably necessary (particularly with the affinities of saline and metallic substances) other wise the practice of it must be attended with consequences vague, tedious, and unnecessarily expensive.

However, be this statement considered as just or not, the writer, as he has all along affected to blend advice with precept, shall preface what he has to advance respecting the consideration of colour-making, by addressing himself to those who are attached to making experiments, with out any principles to direct them, which, negatively may be of some service; as by pointings out what cannot be done, and wherein so many have bewildered them selves, it may shew the fallaciousness of certain operations, and in conseqrience divert their attention from that mode;. which ultimately will not answer the desired purpose.

As to laying down rules for making colour, or exhibiting a great number of recipe's for that purpose (as observed more fully in other places), it would not avail much, but on the contrary, might do considerable injury, by throwing out a stimulus to numbers who vaguely dip into the practice of colour-making, particularly in chemical processes; and hence too frequently dedicate their time and attention to what in the end, bring disappointment and regret.

As to the modes of imparting colour to the cloth, the consideration of them is reducible to a small compass, as it concerns the principle of colour-making for Callico-printers, their preparatory mixtures not running into that great diversity, in respect to the number of shades, as among Dyers. (2) It may nevertheless be said, that one part of Callico-printing is Dyeing, though not called by that name, notwithstanding the colour is communicated but in a partial degree; dyeing being generally understood as colouring the whole extent of the subject, having; previously immersed it in the preparation liquid; but here a method must be used to convey this preparation (called colour, and by an operation, called printing) to the cloth in certain lines,shapesand bodies, so that only shapes are visible when; the work is finished; and here it is, that the skill of the Colour-maker is visible; for though, by his memory or recipe's, he is informed that certain proportions of iron liquor, allum, sacrum saturni, and so on, properly applied, produce certain effects; yet the many undescribeable circumstances necessary to be attended to, render that department so extremely difficult to support in a proper manner, that very few indeed are found adequate to it, (3) even where no attempts are made at improvements, searching for new colours, or more advantageous modes of mixtures; though in fact to attempt this (as hinted before) is the height of folly without a sufficient knowledge of a chymical analysis of what is already in practice; as without such a knowledge, experiments must be inconclusive, and there is little hope of advantage from them, but by downright chance; and this leads to observe on the many instances we have of such experimental practitioness, and their little success in proportion to the boasts (4) that have been made of procuring procuring durable colours by the simplest operations; that is, as must be understood by every one in the printing business, without being brought up in the copper; for it does not much, enhance the value of that operator, who by some addition to the articles, with which another has produced a certain colour, or by some deviation, or retrenchment from them, if he can make it bear two or three more washings, for still it cannot be called permanent, though it may be deemed sast enough. (5) But the principle of most chemick operations or false colours, being little more than certain solutions combined with certain substances; with which every dabbler in chemistry is acquainted with, it would appear like affectation to dwell much upon it; (6) every one of those that make such pretensions will most likely talk highly of his recipe's and experiments; but great indeed is the experience requisite to ascertain the effects of chemick processes, as that only can be done by bringing them into practice so as to execute a course of work with some certainty of the operations not sailing.

It is far from the writer to wish to lessen or dis courage any laudable attempts toward any improvement, but those whom he treats thus cavalierly, are of a class distinguished in the printing business by an appellation too ludicrous to be here mentioned, as it is not likely much service or improvement can be educed from their vague experiments; as for those who proceed on ration al principles, whatever may be the fate of their researches, they are, and ought to treated with adequate respect; but if they do succeed, their re putation must be in proportion; as little progress is yet made toward the point desired in proceeding, even on the most scientific grounds.

Pursuing this idea further, some will undoubtedly say, who knows what may be produced from a number of experiments, if only by mere chance? as many discoveries originate more from accident than design; but still, all this is not a sufficient apology for making experiments without certain principles at hand to proceed by, for without them, the practice must be less pleasant, less likely to be affective, and what is of great, concern indeed, less likely to be attained with little expence; but here it unfortunately happens, that of the greater number of such experimentalists, is included those, who have a smattering of the practice from having been assistants to a colourmaker, or otherwise have caught the idea for the practice, and pursue it eagerly, though under every disadvantage; another class is among principals them selves, who having ingredients at hand, rush into the practice of combining and compounding one thing with another, just in the same manner, and upon the same uncertain grounds; the consequence, undoubtedly, is much anxiety and embarrassment, with very little benefit: as for the idea (just mentioned) of some thing turning up by chance, that is too absurd to give it countenance so as to recommend a series of experiments from such a hope; but advice in this particular it is apprehended will not be of much avail, most persons in this case, imagining that if they have but opportunities of making experiments or seeing ths result of them, or what is sometimes worse, getting together a number of receipes, they may save them selves the trouble of studying the theory or principles of what they undertake; for the idea of studying and storing the mind with certain regular ideas, carrying with it that of much labour and time uselessly employed, very few indeed by choice enter into it: but waving all this, it may be said, that even in such a vague course of practice, it would not be so discreditable or unprofitable, if either class, just specified, regularly made a point of transmitting to paper the sequel of their experiments, (7) as even that would be of service, since by so doing, they might, at all times, see where and how they have failed, or where they have gained any advantage, and accordingly might afterwards proceed uponsurer grounds: but even this is seldom done, though at all times necessary, under every circumstance, indeed it cannot be of much use, unless the minutes are accompanied with proper reflections on the probable causes of their failure or success.

To all this it may however be said, there are many who cannot attend to such a mode; in fact some practitioners are hardly able to write, and Principals have in general enough else to mind to dedicate much time for that purpose; hence is another reason why little benefit is reaped from such a chaos of uncertain or inconclusive experiments.

After dwelling upon this inconclusive mode of practice and the consequent circumstances; it may not be improper, by way of illustration, to intimate in a general manner wherein such practices fail, and then a word or two will be offered as recommending a properer mode of proceeding.

It is first obserted, that the substances capable of producing colours, are almost infinite; so that the field being very large, the mere dabbler has too much opportunity of fruitlessly making at tempts: Some substances give out colours that can be removed by soap, some will oppose that, but cannot resist air; and some cannot be moved by either; now respecting substances that are not permanent or fast (according to the common phrase) and known not to be such by a number of experiments; some persons have endeavoured to improve on them by joining a durable one to them; blending them as intimately as possible, from a presumption that the weak substance would have received assistance from the other; but it has always followed that the false colouring substance soon flies off, leaving the permanent one behind: Some have endeavoured to procure a permanent one, by first putting on a fading one, and covering it afterwards with a permanent one, on a supposition that the permanent one would secure it, and by being externally situated, might defend that beneath it or within it, or at least that it would operate in that manner for some time, so that there might be a little longer durability to the fading one, but this likewise will not answer; and in the practice of using acids, some by endeavouring to mix various ones together, without knowing their qualities or affinities, have found the effect of one destroyed by the effect of the other, like solution of tin and cream of tartar, or solution of tin and sacrum saturni, as the marine acid will quit the tin and join the saccharim, the acetous acid being at the same time suspended by it, is of no effect on the tin: — see experiments of this kind further on; others have had a notion that a mixture of different salts will keep the colours better; but it is proved to have a direct contrary effect: hence when they have acted in this manner, without any positive knowledge of the principles of this part of chemistry, they have made such aeonfused mixture, that it was impossible to know which ingredient, or what number of ingredients caused the miscarriage; much less to know in which was the efficacious property sought after. Now, in this case, it may be further said, a necessary circumstance is omitted, and that is, first of all to try what effect each salt has on the colouring substance in regard to their similarity of effect or appearance, for in knowing this, thsre is the greater chance of succeeding. But, if persons will plunge them selves into a practice of making experiments, let them begin with making them first, with simple solutions or extracts upon seperate vegetable or mineral subjects, making suitable remarks upon each result; though even that will not be sufficient, unless the qualities of the solution are alike, or a previous acquaintance with them be obtained, so as to know their different effects in point of strength, or time of operation; and this implies an abundance of food for observation, from the various mixtures that may be made only, of one article used as a basis, if considered in its different degrees of strength or purity, and the different subjects it may have to act on. However, by proceeding in this simple manner, they may then unite or multiply them . But if they proceed here in too precipitate a manner, they will presently be bewildered, as it must be clear from the above statement, even to an in different person, into what numberless channels the simplest mixtures of simple s with each will run; and much more so when compound ones are taken; hence without some clute in this practice, the same indifferent observers must as plainly see, that such operators must very quickly find them selves in an inextricable labyrinth, hemmed in with doubts and difficulties, and if they proceed, it will be more from a shame of going back, than from a hope of getting into any regular channel.

In proceeding now to the intimation of a more proper mode of making experiments, it is premised, that the consideration of colours (as may be supposed) is exhibited only as relative to printing, hence it chiefly alludes to those that are permanent or fading, as applied to linen or other substances of the same kind.

By permanent colours, everyone in the printing line considers those that are not to be removed by soap, sun nor air; the othert are of various kinds, as some withstand washings, but will fly an the air; others will withstand neither, and others only for a little time; but what is of the most concern is, that, with few exceptions, those colours that are the most permanent, are the least brilliant; though for this, it may perhaps be said, that entering but into the superfices of the made use of, the colouring particles are more crouded together; and consequently exhibit thejr rays more glowingly than if more dispersed or separated; which must: be the case when entered (as is supposed in the case of permanent ones) into cells adapted to receive and retain them; and the more compound the colour is in respect to its ingredients, it is the less vivid, and less likely to be durable.

As to what bold speculatists, or even experienced practitioners may suggest, our know ledge of the nature of colouring substances is very limited; or if we know something of any substance in one state, that substance, when separated, will present a new appearance in its separated parts, and so on ad infinitium; hence, likewise is our knowledge very small indeed in judging or determining on the result of those applications of one substance with another, for the purpose of discovering or fixing of colours. In simple processes, instances are very rare of permanency, but of any combination of ingredients, when one article seems to bid defiance to the great proofs of air and sun, there is the object for investigation; and therefore in colour-making, a great point is to discover those articles that naturally possess those permanently tinging qualities, or that can easily, and in the simplest manner be procured by a combination with some other.

(8) In the Spanish seas is found a shell-fish that resembles the antient purpura, the purple dye is in its throat; Cloth of Segovia is dyed with it, and bears a high price. The colour from the fish when first laid on linen, is a light green, which by the aio is changed to a dark one — in a few minutes to a seagreen — a little while longer into a blue — from that it turns to a purplish red — and in an hour or two to a deep purple; here the sun has no more power, but by washing it in scalding water and soap, and drying it, the colour, ripens to a beautisul bright crimson.

The Americans of Peru and Chili had knots of wool, which by the variety of their colours served for characters and writing; the knowledge of these knots was called guipos, and was one of their greatest sciences.

The Otaheiteans procure a beautisul crimson by mixing the yellow juice of a species of fig with the juice of fern.

(9) Among them will be found the means of ren dering impure waters otherwise. — Detecting, sophisticated allum, tartar, and other falts, with the discovery of new ones. — Various preparations of colours, — Experiments on Prussian blue, Indigo, &c. a new green colour procured from phlogisticated copper and arsnetical acid, &c. In the Manchester Philosophical Memoirs, are enquiries in view of procuring new dyeing materials by Dr. Delaval, — on the use of acids in bleaching by Dr. Eaton. — The state of the imitative arts among the Ancients compared with their present state, by Mr. Thomas Kershaw, &c. &c.

* See this admirably exemplified in Fourcoy, vol. 4, on the of putregaction.

(10) Not being generally known, and to shew that scientific discoveries, though not directly useful, may lead to what is lo, it is said here, that the re flections on the filling of Balloons, gave rise to certain experiments on air. — It may be added for the above reason, that the effects of light on vege table and other colouring substances is such, as to give the Eastern countries their superiority in that respect, as well as their original claim.

****** In order to give persons of consined information some idea of those regions, the object of the above great Astronomer's researches, it may be said the orbit of the Herschel (originally named the Georgium Sidus) or the revolution it describes round the sun, is between 10 and 12,000 millions of miles; or above 3000 millions in diameter. Now here let the reader stop and contemplate the magnitude of this space, as occupied by the sun and the rest of the planets; or suppose it is said a sphere or globular object filling this space. — Now let him compare this vast object or occupied space, to the regions now exploring, containing millions of millions of such occupied spaces, and it must appear as a speck, a grain of dust, or a point. But further, if he considers these regions as unlimited, then this vast object, or space of above 10000 millions of miles in circumference, if compared to such unlimited space, must seem smaller than any particle of matter is (which tho' we know it exists, yet cannot perceive it by the most powersul microscope) compared to this object of above 3000 millions diameter, or above 1000 millions in circumserence ! ! !As it is not certainly known, nor perhaps will it ever be, why some colours fade, and others will not, suppositions have been formed, spe cious enough (as already exhibited) though they are received not as being indisputable, but only as the best or most rational that can be given. The most remarkable instance of simple substances for giving out their colour, as it were spontaneously, was in the tyrian dye, (8) which had power enough of itself, simply to communicate to silk and some other substances, a colour as; firmly as can, now be procured by any process whatever: Other instances are in the solutions of indigo and silver; the latter when mixed with chalk turns the sediment to a purplish black when exposed to the sun, or rather the action of the sun's heat is the cause; the other circumstance respecting indigo, is perhaps more known to callico printers, in the solution at first appearing green, but on exposure to the air turning to a blue, as observed in another place.

Having spoken of the vague and inconclusive operations of many, the following display of the institutes of chymistry in view of establishing me on a firmer basis, is humbly offered, which will be followed by a few thoughts immediately relative to the practice of what is the of this section.

It has been said, that an acquaintance with chemistry is indisputably necessary for a colourmaker to have, but it must be understood not in every division of it; as chemistry, in its extensive signification, comprizes considerations that have little to do with the of this treatise; therefore the elementary parts and principles only will be just touched on, as leading to what is the principal object of it, that of prompting those who look at this treatise, to pursue the enquiries it recommends to wards attaining knowledge, rarher than expecting to find it in the work itself. Hence it is supposed as this little abstract can quickly be perused, and easily retained, it may incite some, from the evident insufficiency of it, to look further into the whom otherwise the generally voluminous appearance of chemical treatises would have deterred.

from the above it may be supposed, that what is exhibited in the following sketch, will be as free from contested points as possibles as well as being limited in the subjects of it. Therefore, notwithstanding that, through the numerous discoveries made, and still making, Air, Water, Earth, and Fire, are no longer deemed elements (Fire is deemed ideal) they will here be considered still as such, and the account as well as the rest of the compendium, will be chiefly taken from macquier; he standing, as it were, in the mid-way between the old and the new theories (see Fourcroy's Chemistry in the Transtater's preface.

Here it would not be unpleasant to dwell on the new discoveries and theories, as almost numberless transcriptions could be made, that, at least, might amuse: however, those who are inclined to look into the most modern authors, will find a list at the end of the work, each ol which contains more or less of what would not only entertain as theories, but as otherwise are practically proper for every Callico-Printer to consult.(9) See maddering and the last note to it. But respecting Dictionaries and other similar compilations, a few excepted, nothing is more fallacious, (see note 40 to this section) from their nature containing little original matter, and few of the new discoveries. For so many have been the opinions and facts promulgated within the last 10 or 12 years, that authors however respectable before that period, are in many points superseded; and Dr. Priestly himself declares, that theory itself is now unhinged, and Philosophers have to unstudy what they have been long labouring to acquire. Not but that the more this great arcana is per vaded, the more we discover of that wonderful connection of the whole; that rotation of effects, where nothing is displaced but its room is sup plied; and that what is called destruction is only a preparative to new combinations and forms.*

The following are some of the modern innovations and facts, represented as briefly as possible, though far from being generally received. Phlogiston, instead of residing in inflammable bodies is resident in the Air, and is an element of Water. — Air contains phlogiston and water. - Inflammable air resolvable into water not smoak. — Common air contains out of 100 parts, 27 pure, 73 phlogestic.- Water transmutable into earth. — Water contains phlogiston and acid. — Ignition a substance put into a condition to imbibe phlogiston from the air; bodies therefore by being burnt acquire weight. — Vegetables exist by imbibing phlogiston. — certain green sedgy matters purify water and keep it so. — In solutions of metals, the diluent or water is the solvent, and the metal decomposes the acid. Several of the affinities are reversed.(10) and Phlogiston generally pat at the top of each column.

In fine, the elements are now almost as much a of decomposition as any other substances.

And here, to deviate from, or, perhaps, rather to enforce the just dwelt on, as it is of sering a great counterpart of discovery, and by the contrast, rendering what has been observed the more striking; may it be exhibited as a respectful, and from the sublimity of the circumstance introduced, an aweful testimony that the present glorious epoch of knowledge transcends all previous human efforts; as taking all nature, as it were, into its grasp, and collapsing the extremes of creation? For, while philosophy on one hand, bursting through the elementary barriers of nature, pursues her to her inmost recesses and analyzes those objects, whose minuteness confound the imagination, and which are only perceptible by their effects; on the other hand, it not only adds new orbs to our solar system, but darts into the immeasurable expanse and scrutinizes objects that as equally confound by their magnitude, and the spaces they possess; in short, it can be said, it explores immensity itself, gages the very Empyreum, and exhibits its construction ! ! ! ! ! — But of this stupendous effort, the writer dare not venture to say more, as he scientific analyzers of literature the:nselves, while they subscribe to the success of it, follow the explorer with timidity, and investigate his pursuits with astonishment! ******

This erratic descant is therefore closed with informing the reader, the whole is to be found in the memoirs of the Royal Society, 1785, as delivered in by Dr. Herschell; and the writer proceeds to the Compendium, beginning with the elements according to the positions just suggested; and first, of

AIR,

Air it need hardly be said, is that fluid which surrounds our globe, and pervades all bodies not filled with a heavier substance than itself. Its chief and distinguishing quality, and from which results the general effects of it, is its elasticity or spring, or its property of expansion and rarefaction, according to the presence of fire and heat. Its weight is about 800 times lighter than water; or a quantity of water 1 cubic inch in bulk will require 800 times that bulk of air to be of the same weight, taking the air in its common state, the bulk as before said, beingv continually susceptible of change.


WATER.

This is a transparent and insipid substance, and fluid or solid according as affected by heat or the privation of it; its natural state is supposed to be solid, and rendered fluid only by heat; exposed to actual fire, it acquires a certain heat (by boiling) beyond which the greatest force of fire can never raise it; the effects of dilatation' (as when a small quantity is thrown upon metal in fusion) are occasioned by the air it is supposed to contain, and like air it enters into the com position of most bodies, except metals and mi nerals, as it is only supposed to be interspersed between their parts, without entering, into their composition.


EARTH.

This element is different from those just mentioned, in being fixed; they being volatile, or easily separated by the action of fire, from the bodies with which they may be united; hence earth absolutely pure cannot be affected by any operation, and resists the utmost force of the strongest fire, being the caput mortuum, or that substance left after a chymical process, which to all perception cannot afterwards be changed. Earth may however be divided in respect to its qualities, into vitrifiable and unvitrifiable; one that will melt by fire and become glass, and the other that will remain unaltered, such as sands, which are likewise called absorbents, from their quality of imbibing liquids.


FIRE.

This element is divisible into that which is concluded to originate from the sun, and that which is called phlogiston, as being universally held a constituent part of any body: that coming from the sun may be called a fluid substance uninterruptedly flowing from him, and diffusing itself through the whole planetary system, and every particle of matter in it, but not as a native principle; hence it may be supposed the air itself would become a solid mass without this interve ning and active principle; its rarefaction and condensation, with the dilatation of water, and similar effects produced in the earth originating from it; and in all our eperations it is the most powerful agent, and when collected in the focus a large lens, is at the greatest possible height producible by human art.

What is understood by phlogiston seems to be different, being apparently fixed to all bodies, so asN to make a part of them; but how so active, or, as it were, so restless a substance can be so fixed, is not yet determinable, as it differs from elementary or pure fire (just spoken of) in communicating neither light nor heat when joined to any other substance, and produces no change in its state; so that a solid body becomes not fluid, nor a fluid solid, by its absence. The sign ot any substance containing phlogiston, is its being capable of taking fire; but, as in the case with metals which abound with it, and which are not inflammable, it is not thence inferred the have none. Thus a body may be said to contain its phlogiston, when after a flame subsides it sparkles or wastes, till reduced to a coal; and, adverting to the of colours, it is known, that the number which we perceive is owing to the varied combination of phlogiston, with oils, earths, and salts.

(11) So deemed as; containing an analyzation of substancei more simple than what they help to form, and are yet composed of primary principles.The next general consideration is, that of secondary principles, (11) which are constituted chiefly of saline and oily parts; and as all the experiments that have been made, prove there is such a mutual agreement, connection, or dependence on one part with another, the knowledge of what substances thus agree or disagree, under their various combinations, forms (as must be clear to every one, and which has been repeatedly enforced) the foundation of some certainty in making experiments for any purpose whatever; but before that can be known, in respect to particular substances, the nature of this universal afsection should be conceived, and likewise what are the affinities of the different classes of substances which comprehend the species belonging to them; therefore the following postulata or propositions received as fundamental truths, (similar to axioms in mathem aticks, or maxims in common life;) and the table or scheme of affinities which will afterwards follow, have been formed far that purpose.

1. Any substance having a conformity with an other, the two will unite and form one compound.

2. All simple substances have affinity with each other, and will consequently unite; such as waterwith water, fire with fire, &c.

3. Substances when united together lose some of their respective properties, and the compounds resulting from their union partake of the properties of those substances which served as their principles.

4. The simpler substances are, their affinities are more perceptible; hence it is most difficult to analyse bodies that are the least compounded.

(11) Thus if you pour vitriolic acid on common salt, the mineral alkali having a greater attraction for the vitriolic acid than for the marine; leaves the latter and unites with the former. The vitriolic acid is also said to have a stronger attraction for the mineral alkali than the marine acid has: hence the former acid is said to expel the latter from its basis; or it may be said demonstratively thus; If A being united with C, upon B's being after wards applied to them, lets go C and joins B, A is said to possess a greater attraction for B than C.

(13) Thus when pure calcareous earth (lime) is dissolved in the nitrous acid (aqua fortis), a caustic volatile alkali will hot disunite them, because the attraction of the alkali with the acid is not so strong as that of the calcareous earth.

(14) Thus, to pure calcareous earth dissolved in nitrous acid, (as above) let ærial or vitriolic acid be added, and the effect is obtained; the ærial acid acting en the earth on one hand, while the alkali acting on the nitrous acid on the other, diminishes the cohesion of the earth with the nitrous acid to such a degree, that the volatile alkali is now able to unite itself with the latter acid, and expel the earth.

(14) It may be intimated, that all Chymists to not agree in the justnesss of these affinities in particular cases, for in this instance (as well as in the instance of printing, and indeed in all human sciences) circumstantial differences will ever Happen, since the perceptions of hardly two persons are affected alike.5. If to a compound, consisting of two substances, a third be added that has no affinity with one, but has a greater with the other, than the first; 2 combined have with each other, a new decompounding, and a new union must ensue.(11)

6. A third substance offered to a body consisting of two, no decomposition may follow; but the two uniting with the third, without quitting each other, may form a union of three principles; presuming the third substance has an affinity, or nearly equally so with each of the other substances. (13)

7. Though a compound consisting of two substances, having a greater affinity with each other than with a body presented to them, may not be decomposed by it; yet that body, when combined with another, having an affinity, with it, compensating for its want of it with the others, may separate the two, by uniting with each of them; therefore in this case there is a double affinity, a double decomposition, and a double combination. (14)

What next follows is a table of affinities, or elective attractions, of one substance to another, or a more specific representation of the substances just alluded to, in the relation they are observed to have with other as productive of those appearances that ensue by their operation on or with each other; the substances in each column or division are placed in the order they agree with that at the top: thus in the first division, Vitri olic Acid stands at the top; accordingly the substance that has the nearest affinity to it is Phlogiston; Fixed Alkali has less than Phlogiston; Calc. Earth less than Fixed Alkali, and so, on. (15)

Vitriolic Acid |
Phlogiston
Fixed Alkali
Calcareous Earth
Zinc
Iron
Tin
Copper
Quicksilver
Silver
Volatile Alkali
Magnesia
Earth of Allum

Nitrous Acid.
Phlogiston
Fixed Alkali
Calcareous Earth
Zinc
Iron
Lead
Tin
Copper
Quicksilver
Silver
Volatile Alkali

Marine Acid.
Fixed Alkali
Calcareous Earth
Zinc
Iron
Lead
Tin
Copper
Reg. of Antimony
Quicksilver
Spirits of Wine
Volatile Oils
Gold

Sulphur
Fixed Alkali
Calcareous Earth
Iron
Neckel
Copper
Lead
Tin
Reg. of Ant.
Quicksilver
Arsenic

Liver of Sulphur is partially composed by
Quickssilver
Solution of Fix. Alk.
Lime Water
Vol. Alk.

Fixed Air.
Calc. Earth
Fix. Alk.
Magnesia
Vol. Alk.

Alkaline Salts.
Vitriolic Acid
Nitrous Acid
Marine Acid
Acetous Acid
Vol. Vitriolic Acid
Sedative Salt
Fixed Air
Sulphur
Expressed Oils

Calcareous Earth.
Vitriolic Acid
Nitrous Acid
Marine Acid
Acid of Tartar
Acetous Acid
Sulphureous Acid and sedative salt
Sulphur

Metallic Substances, Lead and Red. of Ant. excepted.
Marine Acid
Vitriolic Acid
Nitrous Acid
Sulphur and
Acetous Acid.

Lead.
Vit. Acid
Mar. Acid
Nit. Acid
Acet. Acid
Expressed Oils.

Reg. of Ant.
Vit. Acid
Nit. Acid
Mar. Acid
Acet. Acid

Arsenic.
Zinc
Iron
Copper
Tin
Lead
Silver
Gold

Reg. of Antimony (with Metals.)
Iron
Copper
Tin
Lead
Silver
Gold

Quicksilver
Gold
Lead and Tin
Copper
Zinc, Bismuth, and Reg. of Ant.

Silver.
Lead
Copper
Iron

Water.
Fix. Alk.
Spiris of Wine
Mild Alk. Salt and
some neutrals

Spirit of Wine.
Water
Oils and Refins.

In consequence of heat, sedative salt decompose tartar and sea-salt, phosphorus acids decompose vitriolated tartar, nitre and sea-salt.

Instances of double elective attractions.

As where the two compounds being mixed, those opposite to each other, as they are here exhibited, unite and form double affinities.

Acids. Calcareous Earths, or Metallic Substances. | Vol. Alk, Fixed Air
Vitriolic or Marine Acid. Alk. or Earth. | Mercury, Silver, or Lead. Nit. Mar. Acid
Lead., Nit. Mar or acet. Acid | Vit. Acid, Alk. Earths or Metallic Substances
Silver, Vit. Mar. or acet. Acid | Fixed Air, Fixed Alk.
Vit. Mar. or acet. Acid | Vol. Alk. Magnesia, or Earth of Allum; Vit. Acid.

Instances in Fistillations and Sublimations, and that require heat.
Vol. Alk., Acids. | Fixed Air, Calc. Earth
Vol. Alk., Vit Acid | Nit. Mar. or acet. Acid., Fix. Alk.
Vol. Alk., Nit. Mar. or acet. Acid. | Acet. Acid., Fix. Alk. or absorbent Earths.
Reg. of Ant., Sulphur | Mar. Acid., Quicksilver

Instances in Mixtures by Fusion
Tin, Silver | Iron, Lead
Copper, Gold | Sulphur, Lead
Metallic Substances, Gold |Sulphur, Reg. of Antimony

The affinities or attractions here displayed wre either in the humid or dry way; the humid is, when one, at least, of the substances is fluid in the heat of air, or a heat but little beyond; the other is, when to produce a fluidity, the application of burning fuel is necessary.

Example in an instance of single attraction.
Apply to cinnabar and iron filings, a certain heat; the mercury of the cinnabar will rise, and leave the brimstone, its other element, combined with the iron, which it attracts in preference to the mercury.

Example in an instance of double attraction.
Unite mercury with common salt, by means of a like certain degree of heat, a new compounded combination will commence among the substances: by the marine acid of the common salt joining the quicksilver of the mercurial salt, forming a new salt called corrosive sublimate, while the mineral alkali of the common salt unites with the vitriolic acid of the first mercu rial salt, and forms what is called Glauber's salt.